Psychology encompasses a wide range of domains that pertain to various facets of human existence. The discipline of psychology pertains to the study of human behaviour, which perhaps accounts for the widespread interest in this field. Conversely, psychology is subject to numerous myths as well. There is a common misconception among individuals that psychology exclusively focuses on the study and treatment of individuals with abnormal psychological conditions. There is a belief held by certain individuals that psychologists possess the ability to discern one's thoughts merely from visual observation of their countenance or facial features. There is a tendency among individuals to conflate psychologists with practitioners of pseudoscientific disciplines such as astrologers, gemologists, numerologists, palmists, or graphologists, who purport to offer solutions to life challenges and prognosticate future events. The terms 'psychology', 'psychological', and 'mental' are commonly used, but it is important to understand their precise definitions and historical development. The question of whether psychology should be classified as a "science" or an "art" has been a subject of debate and discussion among scholars and practitioners. Science is a systematic and empirical approach to acquiring knowledge and understanding the natural world. It is characterised by its reliance on observation, experimentation, and the formulation of testable hypotheses. The subject area of psychology pertains to the study of the human mind and behaviour. Within this chapter, readers will discover responses to these inquiries plus numerous others of a similar nature. Through the pursuit of psychology, one can acquire a comprehensive comprehension of the essence and boundaries of the discipline. The present unit serves as an introduction to the field of psychology.
The objectives of this study are to examine, analyse, and evaluate the factors influencing consumer behaviour
Upon completion of this Unit, you will get the ability to:
- Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of the mind and behaviour, encompassing several aspects such as cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and social interaction.
- This paper aims to provide an overview of the historical context and viewpoints of psychology.
- This paper aims to elucidate the various methodologies and subfields within the discipline of psychology.
- This paper aims to delineate the study conducted in the field of psychology within the context of India.
Psychology is a field of study that encompasses the scientific investigation of human behaviour and mental processes.
Psychology has been delineated through multiple perspectives by a range of scholars. There has been ongoing scholarly discourse among psychologists on the appropriate emphasis within the field of psychology, specifically in terms of whether the primary focus should be on the "mind," "consciousness," or "behaviour." The evolution of psychological concepts has undergone significant progress in recent years.
1.2.1 Historical Definitions
In the past, the field of psychology was considered a branch of philosophy. The study of the soul was a subject of great interest among ancient philosophers. Therefore, it was initially conceptualised as the field of "psychology," which was commonly referred to as the study of the human soul. Nevertheless, during the mediaeval period, the term 'soul' was subject to significant criticism due to its broad and all-encompassing connotations, rendering it an ambiguous and imprecise term. Inquiries arose about the corporeal manifestation, mass, and spatial extent of the soul.
According to Dandapani (2004), individuals held a somewhat naive perspective in placing their belief in esoteric concepts such as Soul, Mind, and Consciousness. It was widely held, and with good reason, that each individual possesses an inherent soul that maintains a state of transcendence consistently. According to philosophical discourse, the concept of the soul serves as the fundamental basis upon which ethical values are constructed. The pursuit of self-actualization was regarded as the primary objective of human existence. The concept of Psychology as the examination of the soul became untenable chiefly due to the absence of compelling empirical evidence or substantiation on the exact essence of the soul. The reason for its rejection was attributed to its metaphysical characteristics. The discovered findings were deemed insufficient in meeting the criteria set out by the scientific community.
Consequently, psychologists did not accept this definition. Subsequently, the discipline of psychology was delineated as "the scientific study of the mind" by select philosophers of ancient Greece. Psychology was regarded as a subdivision of mental philosophy, as per their assertion. Due to the absence of explicit consideration for human behavioural manifestations and the inherent challenge of accurately quantifying the mind, psychologists have consequently discarded this definition as well.
Subsequently, the field of psychology was delineated as "the scientific study of consciousness." Bagga and Singh (1990) assert that throughout a certain period in the history of Psychology, there was a prevailing belief that the primary focus of the discipline was centred on conscious experience.
Consciousness is the cognitive state that enables individuals to be aware and perceptive of their surroundings or a particular object or event. This particular definition has become obsolete and has been rejected for the following reasons:
The study of consciousness has challenges in terms of objectivity due to its inherently personal and subjective nature. The second criticism arose from the rapidly advancing field of abnormal psychology, which incorporated the examination of the unconscious mind within the realm of psychological inquiry. The concept of awareness, as commonly understood, does not encompass animal or human conduct.
The concept of consciousness was originally imbued with philosophical connotations and was not embraced by contemporary psychologists who prioritise scientific perspectives. The contemporary age has ultimately established Psychology as a scientific discipline focused on the study of behaviour. During the initial years of the twentieth century, Watson, widely regarded as the progenitor of the 'Behaviourism' school, formulated the definition of psychology as the examination of conduct. Morgan et al. (1986) assert that Watson's perspective on psychology involved the rejection of the mind as its focal point, advocating instead for a narrower focus on the study of behaviour. This approach emphasised the examination of observable or potentially observable actions shown by individuals and animals. Watson espoused the viewpoint that discernible disparities in behaviour between humans and animals are not fundamentally rooted in an inherent origin of psychology. Moreover, he contended that a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour may be gleaned via the examination of animal behaviour. Watson underlined the absence of natural qualities and posited that all knowledge and skills can be acquired via learning. Within the given framework, Woodworth (1948) previously asserted that psychology underwent a progression wherein it first relinquished its essence, followed by its cognitive faculties, and ultimately forfeited its awareness. It continues to exhibit a certain type of behaviour. As will be demonstrated hereafter, the term 'behaviour' remains present in nearly all contemporary definitions.
1.2.2 Present Definitions
Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1975) have undertaken the task of compiling the evolving definitions of psychology, tracing its development from the seminal work of William James (1890) to the contributions of Kenneth Clark and George Miller (1970). Bagga and Singh (1990) have referenced two definitions provided by Woodworth and Munn. The first definition states that psychology is the scientific examination of an individual's behaviours about their environment.
The field of contemporary psychology focuses on the empirical examination of human behaviour, encompassing aspects that were previously explored by older psychologists under the umbrella of subjective experience. The further definitions of Psychology, arranged in a chronological sequence, are as follows:
- Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour of humans and animals. This encompasses the utilisation of this scientific discipline in addressing human issues. According to the study conducted by Morgan et al. in 1986,
- The field of inquiry that examines behaviour and mental processes from a scientific perspective. According to Feldman (1996),
- The field of study that examines behavioural and mental processes, and their interactions with an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment, is known as psychology (Tavris & Wade, 1997).
- Psychology is the study of human conduct, mental processes, and the contextual factors that influence behaviour and mental processes. According to Das (1998),
- The field of study that encompasses the examination of human behaviour and cognitive processes. According to Lahey (1998), the field of study pertains to the scientific examination of behavioural and cognitive processes. According to Baron (1999),
- The field of research that examines behaviour and cognition from a scientific perspective. According to Nairne (2003),
- The field of study that utilises behavioural and other forms of evidence to comprehend the underlying mechanisms that drive individuals, including humans and other species, to engage in specific behaviours. According to Eysenck (2004),
- The field of research that examines behaviour and mental processes using scientific methods. Ciccarelli and Meyer (2006) as well as Coon and Mitterer (2007, 2008) have conducted research in this area.
- The field of study that examines human conduct and cognitive processes (Rathus, 2008).
As is apparent in the aforementioned definitions, all of them place significant emphasis on the examination of behaviour, both in humans and animals. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the majority of authors have incorporated the concept of "cognitive/mental processes" into their delineations of psychology. However, it is important to inquire about the concept of behaviour. In this section, we will examine the essence and attributes of conduct.
1.2.3 The Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour
The concept of behaviour is multifaceted and intricate in nature. This section will delve into the essence and attributes of conduct. Psychologists assert that behaviour encompasses all observable actions or activities shown by both humans and animals. In essence, behaviour encompasses the entirety of observable actions and reactions exhibited by animals, which may be quantitatively or qualitatively assessed. Behaviour encompasses not only physical actions, but also encompasses mental and cognitive processes, such as emotions, attitudes, thoughts, and other internal experiences that are not directly observable. These internal processes can be indirectly measured through vocal behaviour and reactions to various problems and situations.
In this section, we shall examine the overarching attributes of human behaviour, as outlined by Parameswaran and Beena (1988, 2002). The following:
- Behaviour is subject to the effect of various variables.
- Behaviour is subject to the effect of various elements, including but not limited to biological, cultural, social, environmental, experiential, motivational, emotional, and cognitive aspects (e.g., feelings, emotions, motivation, and thoughts).
- The intricacy of behaviour exhibits variation.
Behaviour encompasses a range of actions, ranging from basic motor skills such as grasping a writing instrument, through social gestures like waving to an acquaintance, and even involuntary reactions such as sneezing. Additional behaviours encompass specific talents that gradually develop into habitual practises, such as playing the guitar, cycling, and so forth. However, there are further behaviours that encompass intricate tasks such as automobile repair. Examples of very complex behaviour include activities such as lunar landings, piloting warplanes, and rock climbing.
There exist various types of elements that exert influence on human behaviour. Behaviour is influenced by two major categories of factors:
i) Individuals who possess or are associated with certain items or belongings.
ii) Individuals who are part of the natural surroundings or ecosystem.
The characteristics of an individual can be classified into two main categories: physiological factors, which pertain to biological requirements such as hunger and thirst, and psychological factors, which encompass thoughts, views, and attitudes.
The environmental factors encompass several elements such as the physical environment, familial and social relationships, broader societal influences, and the overarching cultural and social context.
The concept of individual differences refers to the inherent variations and distinctions observed among individuals in various aspects, such as cognitive abilities, personality traits
Individual behaviour exhibits considerable variation among individuals, as well as within different groups of individuals. Individuals exhibit variations in their physiological and physical states, past experiences, cognitive capacities, socio-cultural backgrounds, and other pertinent factors. Hence, it is inherent that when ten individuals are placed in identical circumstances, each person's conduct varies from that of their peers, to some extent or in certain aspects. Although there are variations in conduct across individuals, it is important to note that there are also similarities. These similarities suggest that not all individuals are completely distinct from one another in every circumstance and at all times. Furthermore, it is worth noting that there exists a significant level of behavioural similarity among individuals. If a particle of dust descends into an individual's ocular cavity, they endeavour to extract it. This particular form of conduct is commonly observed across all contexts.
Human behaviour is inherently purposeful and directed towards specific goals.
The origin of psychology can be traced back to the understanding that human behaviour is inherently purposive, with individuals consistently directing their activities towards certain goals. The male individual who was seated and engaged in academic pursuits abruptly rises from his position and proceeds to retrieve a receptacle containing water. The objective at hand is to procure a receptacle containing water, to satiate one's thirst. Conversely, a male individual is seated and engaged in academic pursuits, experiencing a sensation of coldness. The individual rises from their current position and proceeds to deactivate the electric fan. The objective of this task is to deactivate the fan, to mitigate the discomfort caused by low temperatures. In the realm of human behaviour, it is possible to classify all of our actions and conduct into distinct categories.
i) Approach behaviour, which is characterised by positive goal-directed actions, or
ii) Negative goal avoidance, also known as avoidance behaviour, is a psychological phenomenon characterised by an individual's deliberate efforts to avoid or escape from certain goals or outcomes that are perceived as negative or undesirable.
The extent to which behaviour can be modified is considerable.
Earlier, it was stated that multiple elements exert an influence on human behaviour. Based on the aforementioned, it is plausible to induce behavioural changes through the modification of such components. The inherent variability allows for the transformation of an individual from a morally corrupt state to a morally virtuous one, as well as the reverse transformation from a morally virtuous state to a morally corrupt state. This particular attribute is crucial in facilitating individuals' adaptation to unfamiliar environments. These modifications are the outcomes of an individual's practical application or experiential learning.
The behaviour also exhibits steadiness.
While there has been a focus on potential shifts in behaviour, it is important to acknowledge that life does not consistently encompass a multitude of alterations. Behaviour has both variability and stability simultaneously. The conduct does not exhibit variability in response to every alteration in the environment, nor does it undergo modification in all instances. The behaviour of humans exhibits a significant degree of stability. As an illustration, it is possible to observe instances where individuals, such as one's grandmother, continue to exhibit a preference for traditional ideals and lifestyles, although residing inside a highly contemporary and technologically advanced society.
The phenomenon of behaviour is characterised by its integration.
As previously stated, behaviour is subject to the impact of multiple causes and serves a range of objectives. Every individual possesses physiological, psychological, personal, and societal objectives. The individual in question has also been the focal point of other educational encounters. Notwithstanding these factors, human activity consistently exhibits a discernible structure and a hierarchical arrangement of intentions. Each individual exhibits holistic behaviour, wherein many aims, learnings, and influencing elements are organised, leading to the integration of their behaviour.
Therefore, when an individual is placed in various settings, they consistently exhibit distinct patterns and modes of behaviour that enable us to comprehend and anticipate their actions. Ram is frequently described as an amiable individual. Gobind exhibits unfavourable interpersonal qualities, whereas Krishna demonstrates a proclivity for sociability, among other attributes. The term "Personality" is employed by psychologists to denote the process of integration. The level of integration in an individual's behaviour positively correlates with the effectiveness of their behaviour. Hence, it is evident that conduct is a multifaceted phenomenon, and the study of behaviour has inherent challenges.
1.3 The Historical Development of Psychology
The field of psychology traces its origins to the 1870s. The etymology of the term 'Psychology' can be traced back to its Greek origins, where 'Psyche' refers to the concepts of soul or breath, and 'Logos' pertains to knowledge or the study of a certain subject matter. The term 'Psychology' was not widely employed before the nineteenth century, and the discipline of psychology did not attain autonomy as a scientific field until the mid-nineteenth century.
The establishment of psychology as a distinct academic field occurred in 1879, with the founding of the first psychology laboratory by German Professor Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Bolles (1993) asserts that Wilhelm Wundt, in his formative years, has a medical background and had the privilege of collaborating with famous physiologists of the nineteenth century. The origins of psychology can be traced back to the integration of philosophical and physiological perspectives. Wilhelm Wundt is widely acknowledged in academic circles as the one who established the foundations of contemporary psychology, earning him the esteemed title of the founder or progenitor of this field. The year 1879 is widely recognised as a pivotal moment in the history of psychology, marking its emergence as a distinct and independent discipline. Before the emergence of Wilhelm Wundt, the pursuit of a psychology major was not a viable option due to the absence of established psychologists or dedicated departments of psychology. Wundt initiated an investigation into the intricacies of the human mind, focusing on its structure and encompassing the realm of immediate conscious experiences. This exploration encompassed the examination of subjective phenomena, including sensations, thoughts, feelings, and emotions, along with their associated contents and processes. Therefore, psychology was officially acknowledged as a distinct scientific discipline in the year 1879.
Psychology, as an academic discipline, is regarded as a science.
Psychology has been conceptualised as a scientific discipline that focuses on the study of human and animal behaviour. Is it classified as a scientific discipline, akin to physics, chemistry, biology, and zoology, or does it possess distinct characteristics? Within this particular area, we shall examine several elucidations about the concept of science. In addition, an examination of the essence and attributes of science will be undertaken, with a particular focus on comprehending psychology as a scientific discipline. Let us examine the subsequent definitions of science:
Science can be defined as a structured and organised collection of knowledge that is acquired by the meticulous observation and measurement of various phenomena (Morgan et al., 1986).
Science is an epistemological framework that relies on a methodical process of observation and analysis (Lahey, 1998).
The primary objective of scientific inquiry is to categorise, comprehend, and integrate the entities and occurrences within the realm of the physical universe. Scientists employ a comprehensive approach that integrates precise observation, experimentation, logical reasoning, and intuitive insight to comprehend the fundamental principles that govern various aspects of the natural world. In this discourse, we shall now proceed to examine the fundamental attributes of science.
1.4.1 Key Attributes of Science
The systematic organisation of observations is achieved through many methods, primarily through the classification of occurrences and the establishment of overarching principles and rules. These tools are employed to accurately describe and forecast novel events to the greatest extent possible. Psychology, akin to other scientific disciplines, investigates behaviour and hence has various commonalities with its counterparts. Psychology, as a scientific discipline, shares certain traits with other sciences, as outlined by Morgan et al. (1986).
The act of gathering data by direct observation and measurement.
Similar to other scientific fields, psychology is founded on the principles of experimentation and observation, rather than relying on argumentation, subjective viewpoints, or personal beliefs.
The systematic approach and theory
The utilisation of data derived from observations and experiments is crucial in the field of science as it plays a fundamental role in facilitating comprehension of various phenomena. The scientist endeavours to identify a finite set of principles that may succinctly summarise the facts. Similar to other scientific ideas, psychology adheres to a methodical process encompassing observation, data gathering, analysis, and interpretation.
The concept of measurement refers to the process of quantifying or determining the size and extent, Measurement is a notable characteristic observed in numerous scientific disciplines, wherein it entails the allocation of numerical values to things or events based on certain principles. Physics is widely regarded as the most scientifically rigorous discipline among the sciences due to its significant advancements in the field of exact measurements.
The purpose of this section is to provide a clear and concise explanation of the key terminology used in this study. By defining these terms, we aim to establish a common understanding
Precise delineation of terminology is crucial for fostering lucid cognition within the realm of scientific inquiry. In the field of psychology, it is customary to establish conceptual definitions by establishing a connection between these concepts and observable behaviours, commonly referred to as operational definitions. The operational definition involves the definition of a notion based on operations that are both measurable and observable. In the fields of physics and psychology, fundamental concepts such as length, height, intelligence, motivation, and personality are delineated through the utilisation of observable operations that enable their quantification and measurement. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that psychology faces limitations in its ability to quantitatively evaluate certain behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, and beauty. This is mostly due to the challenge of establishing operational definitions for these constructs. The aforementioned attributes are universally seen across various scientific disciplines, including psychology. Psychology, as a discipline, can be classified as a distinct branch of science known as behavioural science. In the fields of physics and chemistry, scholars engage in the examination of processes and phenomena that exhibit a significant degree of stability and constancy. This enables the measurement and prediction of phenomena with a tolerable level of precision. However, this does not apply to human behaviour, since it is characterised by a high degree of complexity, limited controllability, and a seemingly greater level of unpredictability compared to the reactions observed in physical and chemical entities. Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man himself. Psychological research employs several methodologies, such as observation, interviews, psychological assessment, laboratory experiments, and statistical analysis. Psychology is classified within the domain of the Social/Behavioural Sciences, which encompasses several disciplines such as anthropology, economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, and sociology (Rush, 1972). The initial category of scientific disciplines is the 'Physical Sciences', encompassing fields such as physics, chemistry, and related areas. The next category is the field of Biological/Life Sciences, encompassing areas such as biology, botany, and zoology, among others. The utilisation of knowledge in addressing real-world challenges can be regarded as an art form. It encompasses the aptitude or proficiency for executing tasks that are attained via scholarly pursuits, practical application, and unique expertise. The application of psychological principles and rules to address human problems in many contexts such as families, schools, companies, and the environment, as well as the treatment of behavioural disorders and emotional difficulties, renders psychology an art form.
In conclusion, let us summarise the main points.
Based on the preceding discourse, it may be inferred that psychology originated as a distinct scholarly field separate from philosophy. Within this section, the concept of 'Psychology' was formally established, and its inherent characteristics and historical progression were thoroughly examined. Finally, the unit also covered the attributes of psychology as a scientific discipline.
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