Dr Manju Antil (Counselling Psychologist and Psychotherapist)

So hello and welcome to this introductory course in cognitive psychology which is titled basic cognitive processes. I am Dr. Manju Antil. I am an assistant professor of psychology. Today’s lecture is titled Introduction to cognitive psychology. We will talk about what cognitive psychology is actually about.

But before we get deeply involved in the topics of cognitive psychology and what these basic cognitive processes are let us ask more basic questions. The basic question is what is psychology? Now should take this question around and take this question to your colleagues, your family members and the people around you.

You will actually get a variety of responses. For example, some of them could tell you that psychology is about knowing and predicting people's behaviours. In this comic strip, you might see that both the rat and the lab experimenters have a sense of controlling each other’s behaviour. They seem to know that they are doing something that will actually predict the next person's behaviour.

That is one way, another response that a lot of students in psychology get and a lot of students get actually, you know really embraced by this is that a lot people would come and tell you that psychology is about reading people’s mind. But at some point, the other people would actually go out and say, ‘Yes, I am a student of psychology, but that does not mean that I can read your mind’.

Psychology is not really about reading people’s minds though it might help you in other ways. One of the last answers about what psychology you could get is that psychology could shape people’s behaviour in social situations. You might see this example here which says in there is a plank advertisement that says that you please through your letter on the ground or on the grass, but it actually gets the exact opposite effect okay.

This is also one of the examples which psychology or one of the applications that psychology has. Moving ahead, but if psychology is just about behaviour modification I would say no. It actually offers you much more, we will see what. 

What is the subject matter psychology then? Let us begin with the basic definition.

Psychology as a science, is a science which studies mental processes, experiences and behaviours in different contexts. We will visit each of these one by one. What are the mental processes we are talking about whether we are talking about just brain activity or mental activity or mental functions. That part is not really clear, but we can take some examples such as learning, remembering, perceiving feeling those kinds of things.

Those are also examples of what psychology helps you do or what psychology is actually studying. 

What are experiences?. Experiences are subjective feelings, what are you feeling at any point in time what is your awareness, let us say for example, I am in this particular room, I see people around me or I see this screen or I am seeing and talking to you guys.

Also, psychology could actually help you understand experiences whether somebody is experiencing a normal state or an altered state may be under the influence of a particular drug or something. Or say, for example, very simply put somebodies other energetic or active or some others may be feeling other passive or sad.

All of these come under the view of psychology. Coming to behaviours, what are behaviours? Behaviours most simply put our responses or reactions to the events and actions in the world. You know we are surrounded by agents, we are surrounded by people and situations and how we actually come out acting is basically what is a behaviour.

It is another definition which I am taking here. Also, behaviour includes sometimes spontaneous activity to achieve various goals or motives. You might have a goal of becoming somebody, or you might have a goal of becoming a cricketer, you will continue and you will have some behaviour which will lead to you becoming a cricketer.

All of that also forms part of what is called behaviour. Behaviours conclude in two ways. One of the ways is either simple or complex behaviour, 

what is the simple behaviour. Simple behaviour is say for example the most typical stimulus and reactions. Say, for example, if I ask you to touch the tip of a needle, you will probably try to touch it, but you will take your hand back very quickly.

It is in response to you being pricked. On the other hand, I could actually give you more complex behaviour that being I could ask you to go in and make a cup of coffee for me. That is basically a complex behaviour which will actually involve a chain of very simple behaviours. Another way in which you can actually look at behaviour is whether behaviour is covert or cowardly.

Coward behaviour is simply the behaviour that can be observed by others the actions let you do the things which you say or say, for example, the stage that you experience and which you show people. That is cowardly behaviour. Covert behaviour on the other hand is something that is typically going on in your mind think that you would experience feelings of attraction, feelings of anger, discusting all of that or for example, simply processing the world around you.

All of that processing is happening inside your head which is an example of covert behaviour. Moving ahead, this is another commonly asked question of whether psychology is a science or is just about common sense. We get asked this question a lot of times. Now if psychology were to be common sense, it would be found with a few problems.

Say, for example, confirmation bias. Now one of how you can describe a confirmation bias is that it is your internal yes man. If you say for example, develop a particular opinion or a theory about something in the world some person whom you know, you will actually look for and collect evidence that agrees with your perspective or that agrees with your point of view.

That basically is a confirmation bias okay. Another problem with common sense is basically stereotypes. Say, for example, people have particular opinions and actually look at the world through those opinions. Say, for example, the most common stereotype that you might have heard or come across of few times is the aspect of, the fact that females are bad drivers.

These are all the most common stereotypes that you will hear. So for example, if somebody comes and tells you that there has been an accident near your house and there was a woman involved automatically some of you will make the conclusion that the woman must be at fault in this accident. However, close examination and scientific observation might tell you that this might not be the case.

So psychology in that sense is slightly different from common sense. I would say much different from common sense actually. Moving ahead, let us talk about how psychology is actually structured as a discipline. As a discipline basically, psychology seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how the different mental processes lead to different behaviours.

Psychology traces also in that sense to minimise bias and the explanation of behaviour and experience in a variety of ways. You say that psychology is different from common sense. However, psychology also recognises the importance of subjectivity in some cases, though always trying to develop a scientific understanding of those phenomena.

So psychology basically draws from two screens of knowledge. One makes use of methods in physical and biological sciences and the other uses methods of social and cultural sciences while studying a variety of psychosocial phenomena. In the first case, psychology focuses largely and biological principles to explain human behaviour thinks as how the brain functions, what the response to various neurotransmitters in the brain, and stuff like that.

On the other hand, psychology focuses on how behavioural phenomenon can be explained in terms of the interaction that takes place between the person and the social context, how the person behaves when he is alone, or compare to how the person behaves when he is confronted with the group of people when he is part of a larger group.

That is kind of phenomenal. As a science psychology applies what is called the scientific method? It emphasizes objectivity it emphasizes that your opinion should be based on facts, and your opinion should be based on measurements basically which is called empiricism. In it, psychology uses of particular method or it basically functions around a particular model which has been called the hypothetic deductive model.

 So let us have a look at this model for a while, this is what this model looks like. It basically begins with some kind of literature review, you actually look into literature, you actually see what the questions people will ask you, and actually look to see what the papers people publish. What are the topics that people have been interested in studying and to what extent they have actually studied them? What are the questions relevant to those topics and how do people approach those questions.

 Then basically move on to formulating your own research questions based on whatever literature you actually started. You move on to design in an empirical study it could be an observation study or it could be a basic experiment we will talk about these things later as we go on into the course. And then once you conduct an experiment you get some data, you get some measurements.

You analyse those data, you analyse that data and basically that helps you reach particular conclusions. Once you reach a particular conclusion you also have to say something about that particular topic. This then gets added to this body of research literature which people coming up to you might again, review to contact their own research questions.

That is what psychology broadly uses as a method when we move on we actually talk about this kind of method in more detail. Finally, let us talk about what psychology attempts to understand. So psychology basically attempts to understand two things, mind and behaviour and the questions in psychology that are asked around this dichotomy are, what is mind, and what is behaviour okay.

Let us kind of take a bit of a person and ask these questions What is the mind what are the functions of the mind or how does one really study the concept called mind. This probably is These three questions basically form the core of the topic or core of the topics in cognitive psychology that we will be focusing on in this course.

 So let us move from here and let us ask a question What is cognitive psychology? What are you going to study in this course? What am I going to talk about in the coming lectures?. Cognitive psychology is been simply defined as a science is basically defined as a branch of psychology that is devoted to the scientific study of the mind okay.

What is mind? You remember we ask this question. So let us actually move on, you know to a simple definition. Let us try to construct a simple definition of what the is mind. Please note the following instances, the use of this term called mind. I will take out I will actually say some sentences, one of them say for example, he was able to call to mind, what he was doing on the day of the accident.

In this sentence, you see that the person is referring to the mind as memory. You know the person is actually trying to bring to mind or recall what is involved in that particular accident. Let us take the second sentence, If you put your mind to it, I am sure you can solve that maths problem. In this case, you see the person is actually taking mind as a problem solver.

So the mind must be able to help you solve particular problems, the mind must be able to help you make specific decisions, have a specific algorithm take specific steps and then reach a final goal. Moving on, I have not made up my mind yet, say for example I am of two minds about this. This is basically again an instance in which the mind is being used to make decisions or consider or evaluate possibilities okay.

So this is again one of the functions of the mind. Another sentence here could be he is off sound, mind and body or when he talks about his encounter with aliens, it seems like he is out of his mind okay. Here you can see that the sense is that a healthy mind is associated with normal functioning and non-functioning is associated with abnormal functioning.

Now these are two different things parts of which we will definitely touch on in the scores, but to tell you that basically the mind then means something capable of making good decisions or saying something that helps to connect with reality. So what exactly then we know about the mind.

Let us based on the statement we actually heard let us train in constructing a basic definition of mind. A simple definition would be the mind creates and controls mental functions such as perception, attention memory, emotions, language, deciding, thinking, and reasoning. Now all of these terms basically are different mental functions which we will talk about in more detail in the coming lectures.

Also, you can look at the mind as a system that creates representations of the world. So that we can act within it to achieve our particular goals. So the mind is also motivated resorts. You will probably touch on this definition as well when we go to further lectures. We talked about these different mental functions, so let us ask what these different mental functions are.

To understand what these different mental functions are let me take you to a practical example okay. So take a moment to read what is here and analyse it to be done along with you. So as Raphael is walking across the campus talking to Susan on his cell phone about meeting at the student union later this afternoon, he remembers that he left the book that she had lent him at home.

I cannot believe it he thinks, I can see it sitting there on my desk, where I left it. I should have put it in my backpack last night when I was thinking about it. As he finishes his call with Susan and makes a mental note to be on time for their appointment, his thoughts shift to how he is going to survive after Wednesday when his car is scheduled to go into the shop.

Rending a car offers the most mobility, but is expensive. Bumming rides from his roommate is cheap but is rather limiting. Perhaps if he picks up a bus schedule at the student union, he thinks, as he puts his cell phone back in his pocket. Entering his anthropology class, he remembers that an exam is coming up soon.

Unfortunately, he still has a lot of reading to do, so he decides that they will not be able to take Susan to the movies tonight as they had already planned. Because he needs time to study, as a lecture begins, Raphael is anticipating, with some anxiety his meeting with Susan. And how he is going to tell her about this decision.

Now you see this is a description of a lot of small little things that are happening at one particular moment in somebody’s mind. You can actually put yourself in the situation at any point in time or throughout the day you can pick up yourself and just examine one such instance you will realise that at one particular point in time a lot of different things are going on through your mind.

So let us try and see what all is happening here, what all the mental functions are taking place. This is the figure of what different things Raphael is doing as he is walking across the campus, so we will see that is understanding the conversation because he is on the phone. He is visualizing his book on the desk that he left, he is thinking that he has to be on time for the appointment because that will lead to complications.

He is also remembering Susan’s book. By the way, he is walking on the campus. So he is actually presuming the camp as well to avoid bumping into people and falling off Also you saw that he was thinking about his car problem. So he is doing a variety of things, he is doing, he is basically engaged and we call complex behaviour at this point in time.

So what all is Raphael doing actually let us boil out to that. He is presuming his environment, he is basically seeing people on campus walking. He is also listening to Susan talking on the phone. He is paying attention to one thing after the other person approaching is left what Susan is saying and how much he is left for the class.

So he is actually paying attention to these different facts at the same time while he is involved in this conversation on the phone. Also, Raphael is remembering, he is remembering things from the past when he told Susan that he was going to return her book today, he is thinking of how he will get the book back or say for example, how he left the book on his table.

Those kinds of things he is actually going through in his memory. He is also doing something interesting, he is distinguishing different items in a category. When he thinks about different possible forms of transportation, he actually is comparing these possibilities to whether he should take a rental car, whether he should take help get a ride with his roommate or for example, he should go on the bus.

He is actually also evaluating possibilities in here also he is visualizing. He is basically thinking of where he had left the book on his desk, he can actually see Okay I left the book there, I just forgot to keep it in my backpack while I slept in the last night. He is understanding and producing language something very complex is actually thinking to himself understanding what Susan is saying and also answering her back.

) So he is doing these three things at the same point in time. He understands whatever Susan saying, and whatever he is thinking and he is actually producing language when talking about Susan. Also, you saw that Raphael is working to solve a problem as he thinks about how to get to places while he is car is in the shop.

He actually has a problem attending and while to conversation is definitely going on, he also needs to evaluate these different possibilities. Finally, he actually comes to a decision, so decision-making is also involved here. He has decided to postpone and he is going to the movies with Susan tonight because he has to prepare for the exam that is going to come afterwards.

So you will see in a particular moment in time, we are involved in a variety of mental functions. We are involved in a variety of these different decisions we have to take, and we are also doing a lot of things at the same point in time. While you watching this lecture on your laptop or your computer, you are actually doing the same thing as Raphael is doing in this particular example.

You are remembering something, you are pursuing the video you are listening to the audio trying to understand what I am saying also thinking to yourself, You were also making decisions on whether say, for example, to continue where you like the course or whether you do not like it. Those different kinds of things you are doing at this same moment.

This basically is what is the crux of cognitive psychology. This is basically what we are going to study in the coming lectures. So if this interests you it might actually help to hang on. Now let us come to the end, let us try and talk about whether and what cognitive psychology actually does. Let us take into account the earlier definition of cognitive psychology 

The definition of what the mind is and the definition of mental functions and we can conclude that cognitive psychology is the study of mental functions okay. Is the study of mental functions for example, attention, learning, memory, visualization or mental imagery, it is a study of language, it is a study of problem-solving when you have a problem at hand.

It is also the study of decision-making. So in cognitive psychology, these are the different topics, these are basically the names of the different chapters Actually we are starting in more and more detail okay. Each of these are specific cognitive function and we will actually look into how de study these different cognitive functions, what are the different ways of understanding these cognitive functions and so on.

So with this in mind, we will actually go on to the next lecture next time which is basically going to be about the history of cognitive psychology. We will talk about what is the history of thought which basically called cognitive psychology. We will actually look into a bit of the history of psychology, and how psychology develop from philosophy.

We will also look into how cognitive psychology or this cognitive perspective of psychology emerged from the earlier schools of psychology.

Summarize the following in bullet points

That is all we will see you in the next class.

Psychology encompasses a wide range of domains that pertain to various facets of human existence. The discipline of psychology pertains to the study of human behaviour, which perhaps accounts for the widespread interest in this field. Conversely, psychology is subject to numerous myths as well. There is a common misconception among individuals that psychology exclusively focuses on the study and treatment of individuals with abnormal psychological conditions. There is a belief held by certain individuals that psychologists possess the ability to discern one's thoughts merely from visual observation of their countenance or facial features. There is a tendency among individuals to conflate psychologists with practitioners of pseudoscientific disciplines such as astrologers, gemologists, numerologists, palmists, or graphologists, who purport to offer solutions to life challenges and prognosticate future events. The terms 'psychology', 'psychological', and 'mental' are commonly used, but it is important to understand their precise definitions and historical development. The question of whether psychology should be classified as a "science" or an "art" has been a subject of debate and discussion among scholars and practitioners. Science is a systematic and empirical approach to acquiring knowledge and understanding the natural world. It is characterised by its reliance on observation, experimentation, and the formulation of testable hypotheses. The subject area of psychology pertains to the study of the human mind and behaviour. Within this chapter, readers will discover responses to these inquiries plus numerous others of a similar nature. Through the pursuit of psychology, one can acquire a comprehensive comprehension of the essence and boundaries of the discipline. The present unit serves as an introduction to the field of psychology.

The objectives of this study are to examine, analyse, and evaluate the factors influencing consumer behaviour

Upon completion of this Unit, you will get the ability to: 

• Psychology can be defined as the scientific study of the mind and behaviour, encompassing several aspects such as cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and social interaction. 
• This paper aims to provide an overview of the historical context and viewpoints of psychology. 
• This paper aims to elucidate the various methodologies and subfields within the discipline of psychology. 
• This paper aims to delineate the study conducted in the field of psychology within the context of India. 

Psychology is a field of study that encompasses the scientific investigation of human behaviour and mental processes.

Psychology has been delineated through multiple perspectives by a range of scholars. There has been ongoing scholarly discourse among psychologists on the appropriate emphasis within the field of psychology, specifically in terms of whether the primary focus should be on the "mind," "consciousness," or "behaviour." The evolution of psychological concepts has undergone significant progress in recent years. 

1.2.1 Historical Definitions 

In the past, the field of psychology was considered a branch of philosophy. The study of the soul was a subject of great interest among ancient philosophers. Therefore, it was initially conceptualised as the field of "psychology," which was commonly referred to as the study of the human soul. Nevertheless, during the mediaeval period, the term 'soul' was subject to significant criticism due to its broad and all-encompassing connotations, rendering it an ambiguous and imprecise term. Inquiries arose about the corporeal manifestation, mass, and spatial extent of the soul. 

According to Dandapani (2004), individuals held a somewhat naive perspective in placing their belief in esoteric concepts such as Soul, Mind, and Consciousness. It was widely held, and with good reason, that each individual possesses an inherent soul that maintains a state of transcendence consistently. According to philosophical discourse, the concept of the soul serves as the fundamental basis upon which ethical values are constructed. The pursuit of self-actualization was regarded as the primary objective of human existence. The concept of Psychology as the examination of the soul became untenable chiefly due to the absence of compelling empirical evidence or substantiation on the exact essence of the soul. The reason for its rejection was attributed to its metaphysical characteristics. The discovered findings were deemed insufficient in meeting the criteria set out by the scientific community. 

Consequently, psychologists did not accept this definition. Subsequently, the discipline of psychology was delineated as "the scientific study of the mind" by select philosophers of ancient Greece. Psychology was regarded as a subdivision of mental philosophy, as per their assertion. Due to the absence of explicit consideration for human behavioural manifestations and the inherent challenge of accurately quantifying the mind, psychologists have consequently discarded this definition as well. 

Subsequently, the field of psychology was delineated as "the scientific study of consciousness." Bagga and Singh (1990) assert that throughout a certain period in the history of Psychology, there was a prevailing belief that the primary focus of the discipline was centred on conscious experience. 

Consciousness is the cognitive state that enables individuals to be aware and perceptive of their surroundings or a particular object or event. This particular definition has become obsolete and has been rejected for the following reasons: 

The study of consciousness has challenges in terms of objectivity due to its inherently personal and subjective nature. The second criticism arose from the rapidly advancing field of abnormal psychology, which incorporated the examination of the unconscious mind within the realm of psychological inquiry. The concept of awareness, as commonly understood, does not encompass animal or human conduct. 

The concept of consciousness was originally imbued with philosophical connotations and was not embraced by contemporary psychologists who prioritise scientific perspectives. The contemporary age has ultimately established Psychology as a scientific discipline focused on the study of behaviour. During the initial years of the twentieth century, Watson, widely regarded as the progenitor of the 'Behaviourism' school, formulated the definition of psychology as the examination of conduct. Morgan et al. (1986) assert that Watson's perspective on psychology involved the rejection of the mind as its focal point, advocating instead for a narrower focus on the study of behaviour. This approach emphasised the examination of observable or potentially observable actions shown by individuals and animals. Watson espoused the viewpoint that discernible disparities in behaviour between humans and animals are not fundamentally rooted in an inherent origin of psychology. Moreover, he contended that a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour may be gleaned via the examination of animal behaviour. Watson underlined the absence of natural qualities and posited that all knowledge and skills can be acquired via learning. Within the given framework, Woodworth (1948) previously asserted that psychology underwent a progression wherein it first relinquished its essence, followed by its cognitive faculties, and ultimately forfeited its awareness. It continues to exhibit a certain type of behaviour. As will be demonstrated hereafter, the term 'behaviour' remains present in nearly all contemporary definitions. 

1.2.2 Present Definitions 

Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1975) have undertaken the task of compiling the evolving definitions of psychology, tracing its development from the seminal work of William James (1890) to the contributions of Kenneth Clark and George Miller (1970). Bagga and Singh (1990) have referenced two definitions provided by Woodworth and Munn. The first definition states that psychology is the scientific examination of an individual's behaviours about their environment. 

The field of contemporary psychology focuses on the empirical examination of human behaviour, encompassing aspects that were previously explored by older psychologists under the umbrella of subjective experience. The further definitions of Psychology, arranged in a chronological sequence, are as follows: 

• Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour of humans and animals. This encompasses the utilisation of this scientific discipline in addressing human issues. According to the study conducted by Morgan et al. in 1986, 
• The field of inquiry that examines behaviour and mental processes from a scientific perspective. According to Feldman (1996), 
• The field of study that examines behavioural and mental processes, and their interactions with an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment, is known as psychology (Tavris & Wade, 1997).
• Psychology is the study of human conduct, mental processes, and the contextual factors that influence behaviour and mental processes. According to Das (1998), 
• The field of study that encompasses the examination of human behaviour and cognitive processes. According to Lahey (1998), the field of study pertains to the scientific examination of behavioural and cognitive processes. According to Baron (1999), 
• The field of research that examines behaviour and cognition from a scientific perspective. According to Nairne (2003), 
• The field of study that utilises behavioural and other forms of evidence to comprehend the underlying mechanisms that drive individuals, including humans and other species, to engage in specific behaviours. According to Eysenck (2004), 
• The field of research that examines behaviour and mental processes using scientific methods. Ciccarelli and Meyer (2006) as well as Coon and Mitterer (2007, 2008) have conducted research in this area. 
• The field of study that examines human conduct and cognitive processes (Rathus, 2008). 

As is apparent in the aforementioned definitions, all of them place significant emphasis on the examination of behaviour, both in humans and animals. Furthermore, it is worth noting that the majority of authors have incorporated the concept of "cognitive/mental processes" into their delineations of psychology. However, it is important to inquire about the concept of behaviour. In this section, we will examine the essence and attributes of conduct. 

1.2.3 The Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour 

The concept of behaviour is multifaceted and intricate in nature. This section will delve into the essence and attributes of conduct. Psychologists assert that behaviour encompasses all observable actions or activities shown by both humans and animals. In essence, behaviour encompasses the entirety of observable actions and reactions exhibited by animals, which may be quantitatively or qualitatively assessed. Behaviour encompasses not only physical actions, but also encompasses mental and cognitive processes, such as emotions, attitudes, thoughts, and other internal experiences that are not directly observable. These internal processes can be indirectly measured through vocal behaviour and reactions to various problems and situations. 

In this section, we shall examine the overarching attributes of human behaviour, as outlined by Parameswaran and Beena (1988, 2002). The following: 

• Behaviour is subject to the effect of various variables. 
• Behaviour is subject to the effect of various elements, including but not limited to biological, cultural, social, environmental, experiential, motivational, emotional, and cognitive aspects (e.g., feelings, emotions, motivation, and thoughts). 
• The intricacy of behaviour exhibits variation. 

Behaviour encompasses a range of actions, ranging from basic motor skills such as grasping a writing instrument, through social gestures like waving to an acquaintance, and even involuntary reactions such as sneezing. Additional behaviours encompass specific talents that gradually develop into habitual practises, such as playing the guitar, cycling, and so forth. However, there are further behaviours that encompass intricate tasks such as automobile repair. Examples of very complex behaviour include activities such as lunar landings, piloting warplanes, and rock climbing. 

There exist various types of elements that exert influence on human behaviour. Behaviour is influenced by two major categories of factors: 

i) Individuals who possess or are associated with certain items or belongings. 

ii) Individuals who are part of the natural surroundings or ecosystem. 

The characteristics of an individual can be classified into two main categories: physiological factors, which pertain to biological requirements such as hunger and thirst, and psychological factors, which encompass thoughts, views, and attitudes. 

The environmental factors encompass several elements such as the physical environment, familial and social relationships, broader societal influences, and the overarching cultural and social context. 

The concept of individual differences refers to the inherent variations and distinctions observed among individuals in various aspects, such as cognitive abilities, personality traits 

Individual behaviour exhibits considerable variation among individuals, as well as within different groups of individuals. Individuals exhibit variations in their physiological and physical states, past experiences, cognitive capacities, socio-cultural backgrounds, and other pertinent factors. Hence, it is inherent that when ten individuals are placed in identical circumstances, each person's conduct varies from that of their peers, to some extent or in certain aspects. Although there are variations in conduct across individuals, it is important to note that there are also similarities. These similarities suggest that not all individuals are completely distinct from one another in every circumstance and at all times. Furthermore, it is worth noting that there exists a significant level of behavioural similarity among individuals. If a particle of dust descends into an individual's ocular cavity, they endeavour to extract it. This particular form of conduct is commonly observed across all contexts.

Human behaviour is inherently purposeful and directed towards specific goals. 

The origin of psychology can be traced back to the understanding that human behaviour is inherently purposive, with individuals consistently directing their activities towards certain goals. The male individual who was seated and engaged in academic pursuits abruptly rises from his position and proceeds to retrieve a receptacle containing water. The objective at hand is to procure a receptacle containing water, to satiate one's thirst. Conversely, a male individual is seated and engaged in academic pursuits, experiencing a sensation of coldness. The individual rises from their current position and proceeds to deactivate the electric fan. The objective of this task is to deactivate the fan, to mitigate the discomfort caused by low temperatures. In the realm of human behaviour, it is possible to classify all of our actions and conduct into distinct categories. 

i) Approach behaviour, which is characterised by positive goal-directed actions, or 

ii) Negative goal avoidance, also known as avoidance behaviour, is a psychological phenomenon characterised by an individual's deliberate efforts to avoid or escape from certain goals or outcomes that are perceived as negative or undesirable. 

The extent to which behaviour can be modified is considerable. 

Earlier, it was stated that multiple elements exert an influence on human behaviour. Based on the aforementioned, it is plausible to induce behavioural changes through the modification of such components. The inherent variability allows for the transformation of an individual from a morally corrupt state to a morally virtuous one, as well as the reverse transformation from a morally virtuous state to a morally corrupt state. This particular attribute is crucial in facilitating individuals' adaptation to unfamiliar environments. These modifications are the outcomes of an individual's practical application or experiential learning. 

The behaviour also exhibits steadiness. 

While there has been a focus on potential shifts in behaviour, it is important to acknowledge that life does not consistently encompass a multitude of alterations. Behaviour has both variability and stability simultaneously. The conduct does not exhibit variability in response to every alteration in the environment, nor does it undergo modification in all instances. The behaviour of humans exhibits a significant degree of stability. As an illustration, it is possible to observe instances where individuals, such as one's grandmother, continue to exhibit a preference for traditional ideals and lifestyles, although residing inside a highly contemporary and technologically advanced society. 

The phenomenon of behaviour is characterised by its integration. 

As previously stated, behaviour is subject to the impact of multiple causes and serves a range of objectives. Every individual possesses physiological, psychological, personal, and societal objectives. The individual in question has also been the focal point of other educational encounters. Notwithstanding these factors, human activity consistently exhibits a discernible structure and a hierarchical arrangement of intentions. Each individual exhibits holistic behaviour, wherein many aims, learnings, and influencing elements are organised, leading to the integration of their behaviour. 

Therefore, when an individual is placed in various settings, they consistently exhibit distinct patterns and modes of behaviour that enable us to comprehend and anticipate their actions. Ram is frequently described as an amiable individual. Gobind exhibits unfavourable interpersonal qualities, whereas Krishna demonstrates a proclivity for sociability, among other attributes. The term "Personality" is employed by psychologists to denote the process of integration. The level of integration in an individual's behaviour positively correlates with the effectiveness of their behaviour. Hence, it is evident that conduct is a multifaceted phenomenon, and the study of behaviour has inherent challenges. 

1.3 The Historical Development of Psychology 

The field of psychology traces its origins to the 1870s. The etymology of the term 'Psychology' can be traced back to its Greek origins, where 'Psyche' refers to the concepts of soul or breath, and 'Logos' pertains to knowledge or the study of a certain subject matter. The term 'Psychology' was not widely employed before the nineteenth century, and the discipline of psychology did not attain autonomy as a scientific field until the mid-nineteenth century. 

The establishment of psychology as a distinct academic field occurred in 1879, with the founding of the first psychology laboratory by German Professor Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Bolles (1993) asserts that Wilhelm Wundt, in his formative years, has a medical background and had the privilege of collaborating with famous physiologists of the nineteenth century. The origins of psychology can be traced back to the integration of philosophical and physiological perspectives. Wilhelm Wundt is widely acknowledged in academic circles as the one who established the foundations of contemporary psychology, earning him the esteemed title of the founder or progenitor of this field. The year 1879 is widely recognised as a pivotal moment in the history of psychology, marking its emergence as a distinct and independent discipline. Before the emergence of Wilhelm Wundt, the pursuit of a psychology major was not a viable option due to the absence of established psychologists or dedicated departments of psychology. Wundt initiated an investigation into the intricacies of the human mind, focusing on its structure and encompassing the realm of immediate conscious experiences. This exploration encompassed the examination of subjective phenomena, including sensations, thoughts, feelings, and emotions, along with their associated contents and processes. Therefore, psychology was officially acknowledged as a distinct scientific discipline in the year 1879.

Psychology, as an academic discipline, is regarded as a science. 

Psychology has been conceptualised as a scientific discipline that focuses on the study of human and animal behaviour. Is it classified as a scientific discipline, akin to physics, chemistry, biology, and zoology, or does it possess distinct characteristics? Within this particular area, we shall examine several elucidations about the concept of science. In addition, an examination of the essence and attributes of science will be undertaken, with a particular focus on comprehending psychology as a scientific discipline. Let us examine the subsequent definitions of science: 

Science can be defined as a structured and organised collection of knowledge that is acquired by the meticulous observation and measurement of various phenomena (Morgan et al., 1986). 

Science is an epistemological framework that relies on a methodical process of observation and analysis (Lahey, 1998). 

The primary objective of scientific inquiry is to categorise, comprehend, and integrate the entities and occurrences within the realm of the physical universe. Scientists employ a comprehensive approach that integrates precise observation, experimentation, logical reasoning, and intuitive insight to comprehend the fundamental principles that govern various aspects of the natural world. In this discourse, we shall now proceed to examine the fundamental attributes of science.

1.4.1 Key Attributes of Science 

The systematic organisation of observations is achieved through many methods, primarily through the classification of occurrences and the establishment of overarching principles and rules. These tools are employed to accurately describe and forecast novel events to the greatest extent possible. Psychology, akin to other scientific disciplines, investigates behaviour and hence has various commonalities with its counterparts. Psychology, as a scientific discipline, shares certain traits with other sciences, as outlined by Morgan et al. (1986). 

The act of gathering data by direct observation and measurement. 

Similar to other scientific fields, psychology is founded on the principles of experimentation and observation, rather than relying on argumentation, subjective viewpoints, or personal beliefs. 

The systematic approach and theory 

The utilisation of data derived from observations and experiments is crucial in the field of science as it plays a fundamental role in facilitating comprehension of various phenomena. The scientist endeavours to identify a finite set of principles that may succinctly summarise the facts. Similar to other scientific ideas, psychology adheres to a methodical process encompassing observation, data gathering, analysis, and interpretation. 

The concept of measurement refers to the process of quantifying or determining the size and extent, Measurement is a notable characteristic observed in numerous scientific disciplines, wherein it entails the allocation of numerical values to things or events based on certain principles. Physics is widely regarded as the most scientifically rigorous discipline among the sciences due to its significant advancements in the field of exact measurements. 

The purpose of this section is to provide a clear and concise explanation of the key terminology used in this study. By defining these terms, we aim to establish a common understanding 

Precise delineation of terminology is crucial for fostering lucid cognition within the realm of scientific inquiry. In the field of psychology, it is customary to establish conceptual definitions by establishing a connection between these concepts and observable behaviours, commonly referred to as operational definitions. The operational definition involves the definition of a notion based on operations that are both measurable and observable. In the fields of physics and psychology, fundamental concepts such as length, height, intelligence, motivation, and personality are delineated through the utilisation of observable operations that enable their quantification and measurement. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that psychology faces limitations in its ability to quantitatively evaluate certain behaviours such as bravery, friendship, love, and beauty. This is mostly due to the challenge of establishing operational definitions for these constructs. The aforementioned attributes are universally seen across various scientific disciplines, including psychology. Psychology, as a discipline, can be classified as a distinct branch of science known as behavioural science. In the fields of physics and chemistry, scholars engage in the examination of processes and phenomena that exhibit a significant degree of stability and constancy. This enables the measurement and prediction of phenomena with a tolerable level of precision. However, this does not apply to human behaviour, since it is characterised by a high degree of complexity, limited controllability, and a seemingly greater level of unpredictability compared to the reactions observed in physical and chemical entities. Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man himself. Psychological research employs several methodologies, such as observation, interviews, psychological assessment, laboratory experiments, and statistical analysis. Psychology is classified within the domain of the Social/Behavioural Sciences, which encompasses several disciplines such as anthropology, economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, and sociology (Rush, 1972). The initial category of scientific disciplines is the 'Physical Sciences', encompassing fields such as physics, chemistry, and related areas. The next category is the field of Biological/Life Sciences, encompassing areas such as biology, botany, and zoology, among others. The utilisation of knowledge in addressing real-world challenges can be regarded as an art form. It encompasses the aptitude or proficiency for executing tasks that are attained via scholarly pursuits, practical application, and unique expertise. The application of psychological principles and rules to address human problems in many contexts such as families, schools, companies, and the environment, as well as the treatment of behavioural disorders and emotional difficulties, renders psychology an art form. 

In conclusion, let us summarise the main points. 

Based on the preceding discourse, it may be inferred that psychology originated as a distinct scholarly field separate from philosophy. Within this section, the concept of 'Psychology' was formally established, and its inherent characteristics and historical progression were thoroughly examined. Finally, the unit also covered the attributes of psychology as a scientific discipline.

In the fast-paced world of professional life, spending a significant portion of our day at work is a reality many of us face. However, not all work environments are created equal. Some workplaces can turn toxic, causing stress and anxiety and affecting our mental and physical well-being. In this article, we'll explore practical strategies to avoid toxic workplaces and foster a healthier and more productive work environment.

Recognizing the Signs of a Toxic Workplace (H1)

Identifying Negative Patterns (H2)

Toxic workplaces often exhibit recurring negative patterns, such as constant micromanagement, lack of communication, and unequal treatment among employees. Recognizing these signs is the first step in addressing the issue.

High Turnover Rates (H2)

A toxic work environment can result in a high turnover rate as employees seek better opportunities elsewhere. If you notice a revolving door of colleagues, it might be a red flag.

The Impact of a Toxic Workplace (H1)

Mental and Emotional Well-being (H2)

Working in a toxic environment can have a severe impact on mental and emotional well-being. Employees may experience stress, anxiety, and even depression due to excessive pressure and negativity.

Decreased Productivity (H2)

Toxic workplaces often lead to decreased productivity. Employees are more focused on navigating the toxic dynamics rather than contributing effectively to their tasks.

Strategies to Avoid a Toxic Workplace (H1)

Effective Communication (H2)

Open and transparent communication is key to maintaining a healthy work environment. Encouraging regular feedback and creating channels for employees to voice concerns can prevent misunderstandings.

Setting Clear Boundaries (H2)

Establishing clear boundaries between work and personal life helps prevent burnout. Encourage employees to disconnect after work hours and respect their personal time. 

Promoting Work-Life Balance (H2)

A healthy balance between work and personal life is crucial for employee well-being. Offer flexible schedules, remote work options, and wellness programs to support this balance.

Building a Positive Work Culture (H1)

Lead by Example (H2)

Leaders and managers play a significant role in shaping workplace culture. When leaders prioritize respect, collaboration, and fairness, it sets a positive tone for the entire organization.

Encouraging Team Collaboration (H2)

Promote a culture of teamwork and collaboration. When employees work together cohesively, it fosters a sense of belonging and reduces toxicity.

Recognizing and Rewarding Achievements (H2)

Acknowledging employees' hard work and contributions boosts morale and creates a positive atmosphere. Recognition can be in the form of praise, bonuses, or opportunities for growth.

Taking Care of Your Well-being (H1)

Practicing Self-Care (H2)

Encourage employees to prioritize self-care. This includes maintaining a healthy work-life balance, engaging in activities they enjoy, and seeking support when needed.

Seeking Professional Help (H2)

If the toxic environment becomes unbearable, it's important to seek help from HR or higher management. Sometimes, an external perspective can help resolve underlying issues.

Conclusion

A toxic workplace can have detrimental effects on both employees and the organization as a whole. By recognizing the signs of toxicity and implementing strategies to promote a healthier work environment, individuals and leaders can collectively contribute to a positive and productive workplace.

FAQs (H1)

1. How do I know if my workplace is toxic?

Recognizing signs like constant negativity, lack of communication, and high turnover rates can help you identify a toxic workplace.

2. Can I personally make a difference in changing the work culture?

Absolutely! By leading by example, promoting teamwork, and communicating openly, you can contribute to a positive work culture.

3. What steps can leaders take to prevent toxicity?

Leaders can prioritize effective communication, offer employee support, and create a safe space for open discussions.

4. How can I maintain a work-life balance in a demanding job?

Setting clear boundaries, practising self-care, and utilizing flexible work options can help you achieve a healthier work-life balance.

5. When should I consider leaving a toxic workplace?

If your well-being is consistently compromised, and the work environment doesn't show signs of improvement, it might be time to explore other opportunities.

Curious about the delusionship in relationships? This comprehensive article explains what delusionship is, its impact on relationships, and how to address and overcome it. Learn more now!

Relationships can be complex, and at times, we may find ourselves trapped in a state of confusion and disillusionment, unsure of what's happening. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as "Delusionship." In this article, we will explore the concept of delusionship in relationships, its causes, effects, and ways to handle it effectively. So, if you're eager to understand why your relationship might be feeling off-kilter, keep reading!

What is Delusionship in a Relationship?

Delusionship is a term used to describe the illusionary state of a relationship where one or both partners maintain unrealistic expectations or perceptions about each other and their bond. These ideological beliefs can stem from various factors, such as idealizing the partner, ignoring red flags, or clinging to the initial infatuation phase. Essentially, it is when one or both partners view the relationship through rose-tinted glasses, avoiding acknowledging the underlying issues or shortcomings.

Signs of Delusionship

If you suspect that your relationship might be plagued by delusionship, here are some telltale signs to look out for:

1. Persistent Idealization: You constantly think your partner can do no wrong and put them on a pedestal, overlooking their flaws and mistakes.

2. Avoiding Conflicts: Instead of addressing problems, you sweep them under the rug, fearing disagreements might shatter the illusion of a perfect relationship.

3. Ignoring Red Flags: You downplay or dismiss serious issues, hoping they will magically resolve themselves over time.

4. Emotional Roller Coaster: Your emotions fluctuate dramatically based on your partner's behaviour, making you vulnerable to their actions.

5. Dependence on Validation: You seek constant validation from your partner to maintain the illusion of a flawless bond.

6. Neglecting Self-Care: You prioritize the relationship over your own well-being, losing touch with your individuality.

Understanding the Causes of Delusionship

Delusionship can arise due to various factors, each contributing to the formation of unrealistic expectations and beliefs. Some common causes include:

1. Infatuation Phase: During the early stages of a relationship, infatuation can cloud judgment, making it challenging to see the partner's true colours.

2. Past Traumas: Individuals with unresolved past traumas might seek refuge in an idealized relationship to escape emotional pain.

3. Societal Influences: Society often romanticizes relationships, leading to unrealistic expectations about love and companionship.

4. Fear of Loneliness: The fear of being alone can drive individuals to cling to a relationship, even if it's not fulfilling.

5. Lack of Self-Worth: Low self-esteem can make individuals settle for less and accept delusionship as a substitute for genuine connection.

The Impact of Delusionship on Relationships

Delusionship can significantly impact the dynamics of a relationship, leading to potential consequences:

1. Communication Breakdown: Unrealistic beliefs can hinder open and honest communication between partners.

2. Resentment Buildup: Over time, unmet expectations can lead to resentment, damaging the emotional bond.

3. Stagnation and Lack of Growth: The avoidance of conflicts can prevent personal growth and relationship development.

4. Emotional Exhaustion: Constantly maintaining the facade of an ideal relationship can be emotionally draining.

5. Long-term Dissatisfaction: Delusionship rarely sustains in the long run, resulting in disappointment and dissatisfaction.

Overcoming Delusionship: Tips and Strategies

Overcoming a delusionship is essential for nurturing a healthy and authentic relationship. Here are some practical strategies:

1. Self-Reflection: Take a step back and reflect on your beliefs and expectations to identify unrealistic patterns.

2. Communication is Key: Engage in open and transparent communication with your partner about your feelings and concerns.

3. Acknowledge Imperfections: Embrace the imperfections in your partner and the relationship, understanding that nobody is perfect.

4. Set Realistic Expectations: Set achievable expectations and be willing to compromise and grow together.

5. Seek Professional Help: If the delusionship seems persistent and challenging to handle, consider seeking guidance from a relationship therapist.

6. Prioritize Individual Growth: Foster personal growth and self-awareness to create a strong foundation for the relationship.

FAQs about Delusionship in Relationships

Q: Is delusionship common in all relationships?

A: Delusionship can occur in any relationship, but its intensity and frequency may vary based on individual experiences and circumstances.

Q: Can a delusionship lead to a breakup?

A: Yes, a delusionship can strain a relationship to the breaking point if left unaddressed, leading to a potential breakup.

Q: How can I differentiate between genuine love and delusionship?

A: Genuine love involves accepting both the strengths and weaknesses of your partner, while a delusionship focuses solely on an idealized version of the relationship.

Q: Can a delusionship be temporary?

A: Delusionship can be temporary if recognized and addressed early on with effective communication and self-reflection.

Q: Should I stay in a delusional relationship?

A: It is crucial to evaluate the relationship's health and potential for growth. If the delusionship hinders personal development, it might be best to seek healthier alternatives.

Q: Can a delusionship be prevented?

A: Delusionship can be prevented by fostering self-awareness, practising realistic expectations, and nurturing open communication from the start of the relationship.

Conclusion

In conclusion, delusionship is a common yet challenging phenomenon that can impact relationships significantly. Understanding the signs, causes, and effects of a delusionship is the first step towards building a solid and authentic bond with your partner. By prioritizing self-reflection, effective communication, and setting realistic expectations, you can navigate through a delusionship and foster a healthy, loving, and fulfilling relationship.